Introduction:
The American Scholar is the title of a lecture which Emerson delivered on 31 August, 1837 to the Literary Society of Harvard University near Cambridge in the U.S.A. Emerson had long been an honorary member of this literary society. He was invited to address this because the scholar who had originally been invited to deliver the address could not come. It was a ceremonial occasion, a band played and prayers were offered by a priest before the actual address began.
The lecture falls into two parts. The first part contains an account of the influences operating upon the American Scholar to educate him. The second part contains Emerson’s view of the future possibilities. It ends with a prophetic utterance regarding the great future that awaits the American nation.
Critical Analysis of the Essay:
1. American Scholar must no longer feed himself with the harvest of other lands but
must read and sing of the events of his own country.
2. The scholar has Nature, books, and his own actions as sources of his education.
3. Self-trust and self-realization must be acquired by the scholar.
4. The scholar must also free himself from all false notions of display and the greed
for fame and cheap popularity.
5. Without action thought can never ripen into truth.
6. Reading should be creative.
Critical Summary of The American Scholar:
End of Intellectual Dependence and Rise of the American Scholar:
Emerson begins his essay by pointing out that, “our day of dependence, our long apprenticeship to the learning of other lands, draws to a close.” The time has now come that the American scholar must make the best use of his opportunities. He should transform himself from a narrow specialist into a man of broad culture, participating in the world of ideas and action. He must no longer feed himself with the harvest of other lands, must read and sing of the events of his own country.
The Fable of the One Man and Division of Labour:
An old fable covers a doctrine which ever seems new and sublime. In ancient times, the gods decided to impart various talents, qualities and spheres to various men, hence they made a fine distribution from one man into men. Man is one and whole. As the hand was divided into fingers so that the work might be done effectively, in the same way there is one Man who appears to all particular men. If one wants to study the society, one must study the whole man. Man is not only a farmer or a professor or an engineer but he is all. After division, in the social state, an individual has adopted many talents and professions such as of priest, of a scholar, of a statesman, of a producer and a soldier. He acts in many capacities. In this state his functions have been divided among many kinds of individuals, each of whom does his share of the work of the whole man. The fable conveys that the individual must sometimes return from his own individual labour to embrace the labour of all the other individuals in order to possess himself.
Dehumanisation through Specialisation:
Man has thus been transformed into a thing. The farmer whose work is totally concerned with field. He only produces food, but he does not know the true dignity of his work. He cares only for his good harvest or the condition of his harvest. He sees his cart which carries his grains. He sees nothing beyond this. Thus, he sinks into the farmer instead of being man on the farm. The merchant is totally concerned with the routine of his business and he does not estimate the value of his work. The soul of a merchant i totally entrapped with money i.e., he is completely mad after money. Similarly, a priest knows to perform religious ceremonies and other rituals connected to religion. An attorney becomes a mere machine and a sailor becomes a mere rope of the ship.
The Scholar as “Man Thinking”:
In this distribution of functions the scholar becomes ‘the delegated intellect’ instead of remaining ‘the man thinking’. He tends to become a mere thinker or still worse, the imitator of other men’s thinking. The scholar is ‘Man Thinking’. This view of him contains the theory of his true function. All things exist for the benefit of such a scholar, and the true scholar is the only true master of all things. But the scholar often goes wrong, fails to understand his real nature, and so forfeits his privileges as the true master of all things.
Influence of Nature on the Scholar:
Emerson, next, proceeds to consider the various influences which operate upon him and through which he is educated. The first influence is that of Nature which impacts the mind of the scholar and operates him. If he opens out his soul to nature, the influence of Nature will flow into him and would mould his soul. He will thus become aware of the oneness of the human soul and the soul of nature, which are both derived from the same source i.e., the divine which is immanent through both Nature and man. Every day the sun shines and when the sun has set, the stars appear in the sky. Ever the winds blow and ever the grass grows. The scholar is he of all men who is attracted most of all by the scenes and sights and the phenomena of Nature. The scholar soon learns that since the dawn of history there has been a constant accumulation and classification of facts. But classification only means that the objects of nature are not chaotic but have a law which binds them together and is also a law of the human mind. Thus, he becomes conscious of unity in diversity which is Nature’s law.
Unity of Nature and the Human Soul:
Thus, the schoolboy under the bending dome of day has an intuitive apprehension that the laws of nature are also those of his soul. Nature and his soul appear as the manifestations of the same universal soul. They arise from the same root and are related like leaf and flower, like the seal and its impression. If he learns of the one, he will know the other. Thus arises the command, “know thyself” which is identical with ‘study Nature’.
Influence of the Past through Books:
The second great educative influence on the spirit of the scholar is the mind of the past. The mind of the past is expressed in literature, in art, in institutions, etc. Books are the best type of the influence of the past and it is necessary that this particular influence is considered in some detail.
Origin and Value of Books:
There is noble theory of the books. In ancient times, the scholar looked around the world and collected all the realities of the world. He meditated over the activities, problems and incidents of the world. After thinking a lot, he shaped the words and sentences for the books. Everything inscribed in the books came from real life of the scholar. He expressed his immortal thoughts.
Limitations of Books:
Now that process is over. There is no purity of thoughts. Nobody can write a book of pure thoughts which will be as useful in all respects for the coming generations as it is for his own generation. The books of an earlier period of history are not of much use to the future. It is necessary, therefore, to realise that books do not have a value and validity for all times to come.
Dangers of Blind Reliance on Books:
What now needs to be stressed is a slavery to the authority of books. The true scholar if he is to grow into, ‘Man Thinking’ must not be subdued by books which are merely instruments of his transformation. Books are for idle hours. It is wrong for young minds to devote themselves too much to the writings of others. Young men need not allow themselves to be influenced too much even by such great writers as Cicero, Locke and Bacon. Submissive young men grow up in colleges and libraries, believing it their duty to accept the views which Cicero, Locke and Bacon have expressed in their books. These young men do not realise that these authors were themselves only young men in libraries when they wrote these books.
The result of this worship of books is that we get the book-worm instead of ‘Man Thinking’.
Right and Wrong Use of Books:
If the books are used in a right way, they are the blessings, but if they are misused, they become a curse. The right use of books is to derive inspiration from them. The one valuable thing in the world is the active soul. This active soul should not be allowed to become the slave of the ideas contained in books. The active soul sees truth, speaks truth and also creates truth. The active soul, the genius, looks forward to the future, and not backwards. Books are backward looking, but the active soul is forward looking.
Influence of Genius and Its Risks:
However, it should be remembered that a genius can cause much harm also by over influence. This is seen in the fact that the English dramatic poets have Shakespearised now for two hundred years with the result that the growth of English has been hampered and retarded.
Books as Occasional Guides:
Books are meant for the scholar’s idle time. In his busy time, when he can directly read God, he should not waste his precious time in reading what others have written. Books serve as precious lamps at which the flame of thought is rekindled in hours of darkness. This fact is well known. In the moments of darkness, these books show the way and light to the scholar and he can preserve the knowledge and wisdom again. There is again sun rise.
Pleasure Derived from Books:
It is also true that the pleasure can be derived from the best books. The ideas contained in the books impress the scholar. The poetry of men like Chaucer, Marvell, and Dryden affords much pleasure.
Creative Reading and Critical Thinking:
As the food is necessary for the nourishment of the human body, in the same way any kind of knowledge can satisfy the human mind. It does not matter what kind of food is necessary to satisfy the human body and mind. Great personalities who ever existed, had knowledge and information derived from the pages of books. There should be a strong mind to collect the information and knowledge. The reading of books must be creative one. One must be an inventor to read well. One should think deeply while reading books. Books should not be underestimated. But it is wrong to confine one’s attention to books only. Books should be read in a creative, discriminating manner. One should, for instance, read only the authentic portions of the books of Plato or Shakespeare; what is not authentic in those authors must be rejected.
Study of History and Science:
History and science must be read laboriously and elements must thus be acquired. But such a study, too, can be useful only when it develops the creative power of the scholars when it enables him to think for himself.
Importance of Action in a Scholar’s Life:
Emerson then points out that it is wrong to suppose that the scholar should be a recluse, a kind of invalid unfit for any handwork or public labour. The so-called practical men mock at a scholar, as if a scholar can only speculate or see, but can do nothing practical. This view needs to be corrected. A scholar must also be a man of action. Action may have secondary importance for him, but it is essential. Without action the scholar is not yet a man. Without action, his thoughts can never ripen into truth. Inaction or inactivity is a sign of cowardice, but there can be no true scholar without a heroic mind.
Learning through Worldly Experience:
The activities and things of the world happening around the scholar, teach him a lot of things. A scholar discovers new ideas and comes across the new happenings. The scholar should always be eager to enter the world which is full of commotion. In this way, the scholar can learn as much experience in the worldly activities as he can in the lonely place. The true scholar never misses an opportunity for action. To him every opportunity of action that is lost means a loss of power. Action is the raw material out of which the intellect moulds its splendid products. In fact, this is a strange process in which experiences are converted into thoughts. In this way, the scholar can have many new ideas.
Role of Childhood and Memory in Thought:
Actions and events of childhood are the raw materials for future creation. The scholar can derive a lot of essence from the actions and events of childhood. Youth is the time when man ponders over what has already left and happened between youth and childhood. In the state of maturity all the actions and events hover around man and scholar in the form of live pictures. The recent actions do not affect his mind. The scholar finds himself unable to speculate over the new actions. Although the new deed becomes an integral part of man’s life, yet sometimes this deed sinks into darkness. When the scholar contemplates, the same deed is visible in form of maturity and it is worth using. There are many other memories such as cradle, infancy, school, playground, the fear of the boys and dogs and the love of little maids.
Action as the Source of Language and Expression:
He who devotes his total strength to action obtains the richest return of wisdom. The scholar must be eager to perform actions, for actions are the sources of vocabulary he needs. Action is a kind of diction. Man’s life is full of actions, events and experiences through which he can derive a lot of vocabulary in order to deck his language. The scholar’s time is well spent, if it is spent in village labours, in town, in a study of trades and manufactures, in frank conversations with many men and women, in science and in art. The purpose of all these things is to master a language through which to express his perceptions. Life is the greatest treasure of experiences, actions and events and the scholar can learn how to embody the language. Academic institutions and books only copy the language which is acquired from the fields where the actions are made.
Action as a Source of Knowledge and Creativity:
Action teaches a lot and it provides a lot of valuable information to the scholar. It is more important than the study of books. When the artist is out of materials, he participates in worldly actions. When his fancy stops working, he depends on his real experiences derived from actions. When he feels great confusion and the books cannot impart him more, he enters in the world of actions and gets support of reality and truth. The scholar thinks over what has already taken place. While deriving essence for his expression and language, he turns to his actions and events. The scholar should not waste even a moment of his life but he should observe everything which is around him. By doing so he unfolds his natural instincts. If the scholar recognises his natural instincts, he will gain strength in developing his mind.
Dignity and Importance of Labour
A welcome development is that the dignity and necessity of labour are being recognised. There is a great merit in manual labour both for the learned as well as for the unlearned. Labour is everywhere appreciated. Always we are invited to work. And we should not hesitate to work with our hands.
Duties of the American Scholar and Self-Trust:
Emerson next proceeds to consider the duties of the American scholar. These duties are such as are worthy of ‘Man Thinking’. All those duties may be summed up in the expression ‘self-trust’. The first duty of the scholar is to make happy, to raise and to instruct men by showing them reality through his observation. He does the slow, unhonoured and unpaid task of observation. He must observe and study men and their psychology, and must not mind if fame does not come to him at once. He must be prepared to accept not only poverty and scorn of the people, but also solitude. His chief consolation should be the fact that he exercises the highest functions of human nature. He is a man who raises himself above private considerations, and lives on public and illustrious thoughts. He is world’s eye, and also the world’s heart. In other words, he sees and feels for others. He must preserve and communicate heroic sentiments, noble biographies, melodious verse and the conclusions of history. Whatever new judgements are pronounced by Reason on the passing men and events of the present, he will hear them and propagate them so that they are also cared for by others.
Importance of Self-Confidence:
Such being his duties, it will be necessary for him to have full confidence in himself and never to heed popular opinions. He should have the confidence to think that not only does he know the world properly but also that he will not be carried away from his own convictions by mere appearances or popular propaganda. This self- trust includes all the other virtues. He should go on observing men and life around him. He should add patiently observation to observation without caring for the view of the multitudes and success is sure to come to him in the long run. In understanding his own mind, he would understand all minds and thus would be the lord and master of those with whom has to deal with. People will then listen to him with pleasure, and find that he has expressed their innermost thoughts and sentiments. This would give him power over the hearts and minds of men, and they would listen to him and be guided by him. This is the secret of the success of great poets and orators.
Courage and Freedom of the Scholar:
The scholar should be free and brave. He should not tolerate any hindrances except those which arise from within himself. He should be brave because fear is a thing which a scholar by his very definition puts behind him. Fear always arises from ignorance. He should face the world boldly, because the world belongs to him who can see through its pretences. He must not lead a sheltered life, but must face boldly the vexed problems of the day whether political or social. He should face such problems like a man.
Influence of the Scholar on Society:
It is for those who are lacking in self-confidence to feel afraid of this world. The scholar must have so much confidence in himself as to be able to influence the world with his ideas, and free others from fear. It is not the man who can alter matter who is great, the great man is he who can alter the state of mind of others. They are the kings of the world who give to all Nature and all art the colour of their own thinking. Such scholar will find that the world is as plastic in his hands as it was in the hands of God. The great man makes the great things. The day is always his who works in it with serenity and great aims.
The Ideal Heroic Scholar:
The common people gladly bow to the great man. It is only in hundred or a thousand years that a great heroic man is born in the world. The common people worship the great man because they see in him the ripening of human potentialities. They bask in the warmth of a man and feel that warmth to be a part of their own being. They are willing to give their own blood to make the heart of the great man beat. He lives for them and they live in him. The scholar should try to be such a heroic man, and then all will bow down to him.
True Aim Beyond Power and Wealth:
People seek power because it is as good as money or because money comes through power. People think this to be the highest good but, if they were to realise that this is a false aim, they would not chase the power and would leave the government to be run by clerks and petty officials. It is the duty of the scholar to bring about such an awakening. Such a revolution in the minds of people can be brought about by the gradual spreading of the idea of culture. The main enterprise of the world should be the upbuilding of a man. It is one soul which animates all men. It is one light which shines a thousand stars. The scholar must understand this truth and develop his own spiritual faculties. He must concentrate on the divine that permeates all Nature and all men.
The Spirit of the Age and Revolution:
Historically, different ideas are thought to predominate in different periods of time. For instance, we speak of the classical age, the romantic age and the reflective or philosophical modern age. Emerson believes in the oneness of all, and so does not attach much importance to such superficial differences. It is generally regretted that the present age is the age of introversion. But why should introversion be regarded as an evil? It is no evil to be critical and to try to see into the heart of things. It is good to cast away blindness and to see things clearly through introversion. The discontent of the literary is not to be deplored. If there is any period in which one would desire to be born in, it is the period of revolution. The present time-the period of revolution-like all times, is a very good one if we only knew what to do with it. There are signs of such a revolution in poetry and art, in philosophy and science, in Church and State. A golden age seems to be at hand. The scholar must contribute his bit to the ushering in of such an age of golden possibilities.
Rise of Common Life in Literature:
This movement has also affected the lowest class. The lowest class in society is being given more and more importance in literature. This is a healthy sign and it points to the birth of a new age. The low and the common is now being explored and is becoming the subject of poetry. The literature of the poor, the feelings of the child, the philosophy of the street, the meaning of the household life-these are the topics of the new age. It is a great step forward. It is a sign of new vigour. It is good thing to embrace the common. One design unites and animates the most distant height and the lowest trench. The lowest trench, the common man, must, therefore, receive equal attention. The American scholar must try to bring about such a revolution in literary taste.
Influence of Romantic Writers:
This idea inspired the genius of Goldsmith, Burns, Cowper, and it subsequently inspired Goethe, Wordsworth and Carlyle. This idea they have differently followed and with varying success. By contrast with their writings, the style of Pope, of Johnson, looks cold and pedantic. The writings of Goethe and other romantics are, however, as warm as blood. Their writings show that things near are no less beautiful and wonderful than things remote. The near explains the far. The drop is a small ocean. A man is related to all Nature. This perception of the worth of the low and the vulgar is a welcome development and the scholar must do his best to further this change.
Contribution of Swedenborg:
There is one man genius who has done much to bring about such a change and to popularise this new philosophy of life and he is Emanuel Swedenborg. He is the most imaginative of men and yet he writes with the precision of a mathematician. He tried to engraft a purely philosophical ethics on the popular Christianity of his time. He saw, and made others see, the connection between Nature and the affections of the soul.
Importance of the Individual:
Another sign of our times is the new importance given to the single person. Everything that tends to surround the individual with barriers of natural respect so that he feels the world to be his, every such things tends to true union between man and man as well as to greatness. No man in this world is either willing or able to help any other man. Help must come from one’s own bossom alone. The scholar is that man who must take up into himself all the ability of the time, all the contribution of the past, all the hopes of the future. He must be a university of knowledge. He is a man, who has understood that the world is nothing and that the man is all important. In man himself is the law of all Nature. He must know that Reason slumbers within him. He must awaken it and apply his reasoning faculty to understand the truth about man and his life. Through his efforts and courage, he must bring about the union of man with man and with Nature and God.