Chaucer: A Modern Poet:
Introduction: Chaucer’s Place in English Literature:
Geoffrey Chaucer’s Prologue to The Canterbury Tales is a remarkable literary work that presents a vivid picture of fourteenth-century English society. It stands at the meeting point of the medieval and modern ages, combining the traditional beliefs of the Middle Ages with the emerging spirit of realism and individualism. In the Prologue, Chaucer introduces a group of pilgrims belonging to different classes of society and portrays them with keen observation, humour, and realism. While the medieval elements are reflected in the religious background, feudal values, and social hierarchy, the modern elements appear in Chaucer’s humanistic outlook, realistic characterization, and critical attitude towards corruption and hypocrisy. Thus, the Prologue becomes not only a social document of medieval England but also a work that anticipates the modern spirit in English literature.
Chaucer literary achievements were very great keeping in mind their historical importance as well as their universal appeal. When he began to write the themes of poetry were confined to the adventures of knights and their love making with beautiful ladies. It is Chaucer’s great achievement that he gave new themes to English poetry. No doubt most of them were drawn from Italian literature or Latin or popular folk tales. He drew some themes from English life also. He made poetry realistic and satiric the qualities without which our modern poetry stands nowhere. Chaucer introduced not only new themes but also new methods of handling them. He introduced two new metres, the seven-line stanza and the ten or eleven syllabled couplet that suited the most to narrative poetry. Thus, he saved English poetry from the monotony of the octosyllabic couplets. Chaucer imparted an extraordinary richness and ease to verse. He introduced a conversational note and humour mixed with mild satire and irony into English poetry. He is the first conscious artist in English verse. Alfred W. Pollard claims if we could take thirty percent of Goldsmith, fifty of Fielding and twenty of Walter Scott, and vitalise this compound with the spirit of the 14th century, we should get perhaps fairly near to another Chaucer. But it would be a Chaucer whose right hand wrote prose and only his left in verse, and the formula, though it may be useful in suggesting the writers to whom Chaucer is most akin, and how modern he really is, would still be defective, for the charm of his poetry remains personal and individual.
The Mediaeval Elements in Chaucer’s Prologue:
Chaucer presents a representative picture of his society that was passing through a phase of transition for the Middle Ages were decaying and the Renaissance was knocking at the door. In Prologue he introduces a group of thirty pilgrims. These pilgrims represent various sections of the contemporary society.
Chivalry and Embroidered Dresses:
The Middle Ages were dominated by chivalry and embroidered dresses. The first two characters introduced in ‘Prologue’ represent them. The Knight was worthy for he believed in chivalry, truth, honour, freedom and politeness since the beginning of his Knighthood. He proved his worthiness in religious wars. He had visited distant fields to take part in battles in Christian as well as non-Christian countries. Everywhere he was honoured for his worthiness. Thus, the poet brings to light the qualities of an ideal knight. In his opinion a true knight should be free from greed, selfishness and inhumanity. Chaucer’s Knight is representative of ideal knighthood. But the Mediaeval Knight was not rude and uncivilized. Having discussed the Knight’s worthiness as a warrior, the poet wishes to tell about the Knight’s other qualities also that make him a better man than other knights. Generally, knights lack in wit and politeness. They use abusive language and suffer from pride of their bravery that makes them short-tempered. But this Knight was an exception in such matters. He was perfectly gentle. He was not only wise but modest also. Being a young man, the Squire takes interest in youthful activities. He does not put on a dull dress or live like a dumb statue. There were embroidered white and red flowers on his gown that looked like a meadow of fresh flowers. He passed his whole day in singing and fluting. His appearance was pleasing enough to make all cheerful. By nature, he was fresh joyful like the month of May. As the month of May brings smile on every face, in the sweet company of this romantic youth all forgot their worries and enjoyed themselves in free mood. It was the effect of his enthusiastic romantic personality. Here the poet brings to light the artistic excellence of the period that the flowers embroidered on the gown looked like the real one. It points out how the cottage industry of garment making had left behind the former garment houses that failed in giving variety and artistic touch to dresses.
Dangers of Travelling:
The Middle Ages were dominated by dangers of travelling. The Yeoman being a forester has to guard himself against wild beasts and therefore he keeps weapons and puts on a green dress in which he can hide himself in a bush in case of an unavoidable danger. Chaucer points out that the Yeoman kept all the possible weapons with him for it was very dangerous to pass through thick forests full of wild animals. Besides he was wearing an arm guard. He had a sword and a shield at one side and a dagger on the other. The dagger was pointed like a spear. He wore a silver medal of Christopher on his breast. He had a horn hanging with his belt.
Growing Worldliness in Church:
The Middle Ages were dominated by growing worldliness in Church. Chaucer admires the Nun’s table manners on the one hand and on the other, exposes her worldly nature. In fact, a nun ought to concentrate her mind in religious matters. It is a matter of surprise that she cares so much for such worldly things. She showed stately manners to be respected in society. The poet tells about her inner nature. It was helping and kind enough to make her weep on seeing a dead or bleeding mouse. She had pet puppies whom she fed with roasted flesh and high-class bread with milk. If any one of them was dead she wept bitterly. She could not bear if anybody beat or frightened them. A nun ought to be merciful towards orphan children, the sick and the old. She ought to look after them and feed them by borrowing money and food from the well to do people of society. But such things were below her dignity. She had no time for them. She fed her dogs with milk and bread of high-quality wheat. It exposes her vanity. Likewise had no faith in ancient discipline of religious people. He was head or keeper of a monastery. He did not follow the strict rules of discipline for inonks made by St. Maurus and St. Benedict. He did not like anything outdated. He wanted to go with the new world. It exposes his imperfection. The Friar makes mockery of confession by granting pardon only by taking gifts.
Superstitions and Traditions:
The Middle Ages were dominated by superstitions. For example, Chaucer’s Doctor was a scholar in study of stars. He treated his patients according to their stars with the supernatural power of divine glory. He knew the fortune of his patients. He knew the cause of every disease if it has root in hot or cold or dry or moist humour. He gave medicine accordingly. It may be interpreted in another way also that for the satisfaction of his superstitious patients he used calculate their nativity but for prescribing proper treatment he used to know the root cause of the disease.
The Modern Elements in Chaucer’s Prologue:
The modern poetry is full of realism, humour, satire and irony. It is simple and direct. It provides a sort of criticism of life. It deals with the life of common people.
Realism:
Chaucer’s ‘Prologue’ is a realistic account of contemporary society. Chaucer points it out why a particular activity takes place at that time for example he tells about the period of pilgrimage as well as the way in which the pilgrims used to proceed to a holy place. Chaucer’s realism is impartial for he accounts for imperfections as truly as perfections. For example, he points out that the Wife of Bath was not attractive at all. Her face was bold and dark. Her mouth was gap-toothed. She was hard of hearing and her hips were heavy yet so many people were mad after her. It is so for she is an earning lady and her frank behaviour wins their hearts. It is true that she was gap- toothed. She sat comfortably upon a slow-moving horse. She wore a fair wimple or veil and a wide hat shaped like a shield. Her outer skirt covered her large hips. She wore a pair of light shoes. In company she talked freely and cut jokes. She knew all the remedies of love for she had gone through that game so often and so long. Her charms are hidden in her being a lady of self-earning and frank nature. These qualities are rare to be found in a lady in a traditional society.
Humour:
Chaucer’s humour is innocent, pleasing and full of universality. For example, he tells about the Squire’s hair and gown. The squire was a loving enthusiastic young man. His hair was curly as if it were kept under pressure. The poet guesses the squire was twenty years old. His height was moderate. He was very strong and active. He had been in cavalry force at Flanders, Artois and Picardy. He had become an expert rider in a short period just to impress his beloved. There were embroidered white and red flowers on his gown that looked like a meadow of fresh flowers. He tells about the Monk’s gown that was decorated with fine fur at the cuff. His hat was bound with a pin of solid gold under his chin in a butterfly knot. His bald head shone like glass. His face shined as if it were oiled. He was a bulky man. His eyes were sinking and rolling in his head. They looked burning like the furnace of lead. Likewise, when the Friar played on a harp his eyes glittered like stars in a foggy night. The shipman had drunk wine secretly without payment when the merchant was asleep.
Satire:
‘Prologue’ is a remarkable poem of satiric nature. The poet passes mild satires without even a bit of bitterness for he knows that no man is perfect. It is the quality of his satires that they are neither bitter nor biting. But they are perfect in serving their purpose. For example, Chaucer passes satire on the corrupt practice of the Summoner. He was a kind rascal. It was difficult to find out a more wicked man. If a man could give him wine, he allowed him to enjoy himself with a mistress. If he lent his mistress to the Summoner the man could enjoy himself with her for the whole year for the Summoner was ready to excuse him. Privately he could cheat an ignorant person. He asked to be bold against the fear of the arch deacon’s excommunication and taking no risk to his soul the person should suffer a loss of money. Besides, purse is hell i.e., a noble person should not love money and get rid of it. But in reality, he told a lie by saying it for he loved money.
Irony:
Irony is a literary device in which an imperfection is pointed out indirectly. Chaucer is expert in this art and hits imperfections of his contemporary society without creating any sense of bitterness. For example, Chaucer makes an ironic comment on the Monk:
What sholde he studie and make hymselven wood,
Upon a book in cloystre alwey to poure,
Or swynken with his handes and laboure,
As Austyn bit? How shal the world be served?
In a way the monk was justified for he had no faith in those books. In this condition if he is forced some how to read those books his wits will be confused. The poet remarks that the Monk did not give any importance to those books that claim that hunters are not holy. According to them a monk becomes careless if he spends his time out of cell. He is like a fish out of water that means his sacredness is lost. He did not like to study those bulky books. The poet passes satire on the monk saying that the monk’s opinion was right for such books would make him mad. He did not like the life of a scholar who spends his whole time in reading those meaningless books. He did not care for St. Augustine and his suggestions. The monk wanted to serve the world and therefore he had become a rider. He was a worldly man whose sole interest was hidden in worldly activities. It is an example of remarkable use of irony.
Criticism of Life:
Chaucer’s poetry provides a sharp criticism of life for it is not for Art’s sake. It is for Life’s sake. Chaucer points out throughout the ‘Prologue’ what is wrong and what right. He criticises the growing worldliness among the churchmen. But his attitude is not negative for he tells about good People also. He points out imperfections of the Nun, the Monk and the Friar. He admires the Poor Parson for his truthfulness. According to him the priest should be ideal enough to present an example before others to show how his followers should live without being corrupted. He never ran after earning money leaving his followers sunk in corruption. He did not go to St. Paul’s in London to collect fees for singing mass or to join another guild for earnings. He lived in his town taking care of his parishioners so that corrupt people might not mislead them. In fact, he was a priest and not a businessman. Though he was holy and virtuous he was not merciless to sinners. He was never scornful or rude in his speech. He always taught quietly and kindly. His only ambition was to lead his followers to heaven by inspiring them to lead an honest life. But if anybody was obstinate, he would rebuke him then and there without caring if he was rich or poor. While dealing with the character of the Knight he points out how he believed in chivalry, truth, honour, freedom and politeness. Besides, he was not only brave but he was not only brave but wise and polite also. He had never abused anybody in his life. In short, he was a perfect gentle knight. Chaucer’s criticism of life is so apt that it becomes universal. For example, he points out that the Summoner’s face was pimpled for he loved garlic, onion and leafy vegetables and drank strong red wine of blood colour. Under intoxication he spoke only Latin and cried like a mad man. He knew only a few Latin words that he had learnt from some law. It was not surprising for he heard these words all the time in the court. Like a bird he could speak the word ‘Walter’ in the manner of the Pope. But if a man examined him further, he forgot whatever he knew. Then he began to cry ‘The question is what portion of the law (applies)’. The poet tells about the Wife of Bath also that she was not attractive at all. Her face was bold and dark. Her mouth was gap-toothed. She was hard of hearing and her hips were heavy yet so many people were mad after her. It is so for she is an earning lady and her frank behaviour wins their hearts. It is true that she was gap-toothed. She sat comfortably upon a slow-moving horse. She wore a fair wimple or veil and a wide hat shaped like a shield. Her outer skirt covered her large hips. She wore a pair of light shoes. In company she talked freely and cut jokes. She knew all the remedies of love for she had gone through that game so often and so long. Her charms are hidden in her being a lady of self- earning and frank nature. These qualities are rare to be found in a lady in a traditional society.
Simplicity:
Chaucer’s simplicity is admirable particularly in the context of his age in which display of vain learning was supposed to be necessary to impress others. Chaucer does not care for that and writes as simple as possible. It is to be noted here that his simple expression becomes more impressive and clearer. For example, he writes about the Sergeant of Law:
Nowher so bisy a man as he ther nas,
And yet he semed bisier than he was.
Likewise, his comment on the Doctor is simple but sharp and comprehensive:
For gold in phisik is a cordial,
Therfore he loved gold in special.
His simplicity has made many of his expressions popular like proverbial statements. For example, he writes about the Monk:
What sholde he studie and make hymselven wood,
He evaluates the Squire’s character in the following words:
He was as fressh as is the month of May.
His Poor Parson gives a fair warning:
That if gold rust, what shal iren do?
Interest in Common People:
Chaucer’s poetry is modern in this sense also that he breaks the tradition of telling tales of kings and queens. He deals with society at large. In ‘Prologue’ he tells about almost all the sections of the society. He does not ignore the minor traders who belong to the same guild they were five miner traders consisting of a button seller, a carpenter, a weaver, a dyer and a tapestry maker. They were in the uniform of a grand union. Their dresses were new, neat and pressed. Their knives were not covered in brass but in silver. Their belts and pouches were neat and clean. They looked like respectable citizens worthy enough to take a seat on dice of a guild-hall. They were wise enough to be honoured as chairmen. Now they had rich property and handsome income. Their wives knew it and wished to be called ‘Madam’. They wanted to lead the procession in the village in a royal manner. Under the impact of Renaissance all people had recognised their importance. All were eager to be as powerful as possible. The weaker section, therefore, had joined grand unions called Guilds at that time. The members of a Guild used to put on a uniform to show their faith in that. Now they were free from exploitation. Their income and social status were increasing. It had made them and their families over ambitious. The poor parson’s brother was a ploughman who had come with him. The ploughman had drawn many a cartload of dung. He was a true and gentle worker. He lived in perfect peace and charity. He loved God whole heartedly and never forgot Him whether he passes through prosperity or adversity. He loved his neighbour even as himself. For a poor he was ready to thrash, ditch and dig without payment in the name of God if it was in his power to do that. He was regular in paying his tithe fairly on his work and property. He was in a working man’s dress.
Conclusion:
Thus, Chaucer represents mediaeval and modern characteristics in his ‘Prologue’ that stands as a remarkable example of modern poetry.